Blog curated by Marco Ramelli, TU Dublin Conservatoire
In the chapter Toward a Theory of Duende of article A Lost Culture of Touch and Sound.
I propose a radically different conception of historical plucked musical instruments, suggesting that some plucked instruments—including the Spanish guitar—were also developed to function as forms of sensory substitution devices, capable of fostering quasi-visual experiences or modes of musical imagination through the processing of subliminal haptic perception. This process was shaped not only by the instrument itself, but also by the cultural role of musicians as spiritual mediators, as well as by their pedagogical practices and by the personal traits of guitarists—particularly in the case of visually impaired musicians, who are more inclined toward cross-modal perception and enhanced neural plasticity.
In the article, I propose possible cognitive mechanisms, drawing on recent studies in the field of neuroscience, in an attempt to bridge a concept traditionally associated with the artistic and mystical spheres and to provide it with a scientific basis.
In the earlier part of the article, I explore how the organological characteristics of the instruments and their pedagogical contexts provide important evidence in support of this theory.
Below, I share a section of the chapter. To fully understand the foundations of my argument, I strongly recommend reading the complete article.
From Chapter 7 – Toward a Theory of Duende
If we consider duende a genuine cognitive modality, it may have emerged, particularly in instrumental music, through the convergence of learning methods, social functions, instrument design, and musicians’ own living conditions—including visual impairment. Contemporary science increasingly acknowledges cognitive mechanisms—particularly evident in blind individuals—that may, in the past, have supported the development of alternative perceptual modes, just as they do today. One instance is Paul Bach-y-Rita’s workon sensory substitution.[103] In his experiments, a camera captured visual signals, which were then translated into vibrations. These were delivered to blind individuals through a device to their backs. When trained in goal-driven motor engagement, participants eventually developed experiences akin to vision. Crucially, as the philosopher Andy Clark observed, this form of sensory substitution did not result from participants’ being taught how the system worked, but rather from their freedom to act with purpose and from therequirement that the “head-mounted camera be under the subject’s intentional motor control.”[104] Initially, users perceived only vibrations, but over time, this sensation faded from their con-scious awareness and a new form of perceptual experience replaced it. The vibrations became transparent in use—participants no longerconsciously perceived them. This was not “vision” in the literal sense, but a new sensory modality that emerged from the integration of vibrations into an intentional activity.
In this sense, the guitar itself—at least the type historically used for spiritual purpose—can be understood as a form of sensory substitution device. Whereas Bach-y-Rita’s experiments used sensory substitution to generate perceptions functionally similar to vision,in the case of the Spanish guitar, haptic feedback facilitated access to a composite sense—a culturally andspiritually charged mode of perception, shaped by societal expectations. This sensory modality was closely linked to states of inspiration and inner vision, and to the spiritual role that musicians—such as the ciegos oracioneros—held in society as recognized spiritual mediators.
Blind musicians’ highly developed sense of touch made them particularly well suited to managing the difficulties of early plucked instruments. The haptic feedback the instrument provided not only helped them to manage the inherent indeterminacy of early stringed instruments but also carried subliminal information, supporting meditative and inspirational states of mind. The pedagogies of blind communities emphasized improvisation, sensory exploration, and goal-oriented action—approaches that functionally align with the principles of sensory substitution. Duende, or inspiration, can thus be understood as the composite sense that emerged from these interwoven conditions. Given the deep and enduring association between blind individuals and plucked instruments, it may originally have arisen in prehistoric times—when societies began to include, rather than exclude, visually impaired individuals by assigning them the role of musicians.
The parallel with sensory substitution offers a valuable framework for understanding not only the elements García Lorca associated with duende but also their potential origins in blind musical traditions, before they were transmitted to, or adapted by, sighted communities.[105] Once society actively fostered its development—through instrument design, pedagogical practices, and cultural expectations—even sighted musicians could access it, particularly those with heightened sensitivity or a predisposition towardneuroplasticity. It is not, of course, that blind individuals are inherently more predisposed to duende, but ratherthat their lived experience in the past and their way of passing on their skills played a crucial role in developing the very approach through which this condition could be accessed.
The parallels with sensory substitution offer a compelling framework for interpreting duende not as a mystical abstraction, but as a concrete sensory phenomenon—one that is difficult to articulate precisely, because it operates through perceptual processes that are transparent and unconscious, where the function of tactile perception is no longer consciously perceived. Here again we return to the problem of documentation emphasized frequently above: those most capable of cultivating this state—individuals with heightened neuroplasticity but limited access to formal education—are those least likely to have left written records.[106] This may be one reason for the longstanding tension between formal academic training and the pursuit of duende. As Lorca wrote, when “seeking the duende, there is neither map nor discipline.”[107]
In this context, the cases of Tárrega, Manjón, and Segovia are particularly revealing. Each traversed a pedagogical pathway that began with experiential, implicit learning—rooted in blind musical traditions, and involving instruments that require a refined tactile sensitivity—before transitioning into more academic forms of instruction. Their trajectories suggest that it is possible to reconcile, or at least alternate between, two approaches that seem incompatible: intuitive, embodied learning associated with the emergence of duende, and formalized, institutional training.
This section is intended as an exploratory hypothesis—an invitation to engage in interdisciplinary research. It suggests that the poetic accounts of duende that musicians and writers have offered may, precisely by virtue of their poetic nature, reflect genuine cognitive transformations—alternative ways of knowing. These ways of knowing, however, are increasingly inhibited by modern approaches to instrument design, musical pedagogy, and the selection of musicians. By revisiting the overlooked role of blindmusicians and their sensory practices, we may gain new insights into the origins of musical inspiration.
[103] Paul Bach y Rita and Stephen W. Kercel, “Sensory Substitution and the Human–Machine Interface,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7, no. 12 (2003): 541–46. For a review of other sensory substitution devices, see, for instance, David M. Eagleman and Michael V. Perrotta, “The Future of Sensory Substitution, Addition, and Expansion via Haptic Devices,” Frontiers inHuman Neuroscience 16 (2023), org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.1055546.
[104] Andy Clark, Supersizing the Mind: Embodiment, Action, and Cognitive Extension (Oxford University Press, 2010), 80.
[105] Current research shows that skills typically associated with blind individuals can also be developed by sighted ones, oftenyielding comparable functional outcomes, even if the under-lying cognitive processes See, for example, a recent studywhich investigated click-based echolocation training in both blind and sighted adults: Liam J. Norman et al., “Changes inPrimary Visual and Auditory Cortex of Blind and Sighted Adults Following 10 Weeks of Click-Based Echolocation Training,” Cerebral Cortex 34, no. 6 (2024).
[106] As Pacheco-Costa has noted, Spanish composers and performers could obtain a conservatory diploma without havingreceived a regular general “In general, there were no other academic requirements for obtaining the respective diplomas offered by these Catalan institu-tions apart from attending thelessons and passing the exams. The entry requirements in other institutions, such as the Conservatory of Madrid, specified that candidates should be able to read and write. Therefore, any musician could obtain a professional diploma without havingfinished regular schooling, and a significant number of the alumni, or student graduates, had little instruction in common subjects such as literature or maths.” Alejandra Pacheco-Costa, “Music Teaching and theSpanish Regenerationism: Felipe Pedrell and the Academia Granados,” History of Education 49, no. 6 (2020), 763.
[107] García Lorca, Theory and Play of the Duende,
Here a video to know more about of revolutionary work in neurosplasticity by Paul Bach-y-Rita
Other posts:
